CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA
The implications of Sex preferences on fertility have been widely observed around the globe. Considerable attention has been devoted to the issue of sex preference because parental sex preference can cause discriminatory practices against children of the less-desired sex, and these practices can have unfavorable socio-economic and demographic consequences. For example, pronounced sex preference in fertility can lead to sex-selective abortion (Goodkind, 1996). Population is a vital component of the resource base of any country; the world population was doubled in early 90s and later tripled after more than 3 decades. Moreso, according to the Population Reference Bureau (PRB, 2013) report, the world population is currently put at 7.2billion.
With a population of a little above 140 million people and an annual growth rate of 3.3 percent (NPC, 2007), Nigeria is ranked the eight most populous nation in the world, the growth in Nigeria‟s population which is attributable to high rate of both desired and actual fertility. The Federal Ministry of Health in Nigeria and the United Nations Agency for International Development (UNAID, 2003) report a total mean number of desired children of 6.7. Whereas, the National Demographic Health Survey (2013) report put the figure at 5.5 per woman which is significantly high compared with developed countries like Russia and United State of America with 1.2 per woman for both countries, according to the report by Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) World Fact book 2013.
High fertility has become an increasingly important concern for many governments in developing countries. It has been noted that relative to women, Nigerian men want more children and are less likely to approve of family limitation (Isiugo-Abanihe, 2003). The higher male ideal number of children could be attributed to polygyny since they may expect a large family size from two or more wives. Even the practice of polygyny in some cases is brought about by the desire for male children, since is a patriarchal society with predominant cultural practise.
Sex preference means the preference for a particular sex over the other (Adeleye, 2010). It is generally the desire, expressed or implied by parents in time to have a child of a particular sex (Leone, Zoe and Gianpiro, 2003). It is a form of gender discrimination and it is based on the belief that it is more socially, economically, religiously and politically advantageous to have at least a son or a daughter. It usually encompasses a variety of ways of treating boys differently from girls and can lead some families to undertake measures to ensure that at least one boy or girl is born. For example, Son preference is a common characteristic of most cultures and countries. The strength of the preference varies by culture,
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class and point in history, and can be expressed in overt and subtle ways, ranging from more familial support and approbation for boys to less food, education and health care for girls.
Moreso, sex preference depends on stereotyped ideas that boys and girls are limited in what they can do based on their biological sex. These practices may vary based on the intensity of preference to a particular sex, public policies and social attitudes related to population control and fertility, the state of economic development, the availability of the technologies, and the access to those technologies (Fuse, 2010). For example, in India and China people were more interested in ensuring they had at least one son when the government was encouraging and/or mandating only one or two children per family.
Furthermore, the individual‟s socio-economic status can have consequences on sex preferences for children (Becker, 2006). If socio-economic development changes people lifestyles, one‟s fertility preferences may be influence by the level of development of the society in which they reside in particular, industrialization, urbanization and educational expansion accompanying socio-economic development may alter the relative value of sons and daughters because desired qualities of a child may differ in a more developed societal context (Barrett, 2004).
It is also possible that socio-economic development may alleviate sex preferences because sex roles grow more ambiguous with modernization. In more developed societies, individuals are also less tied to the traditional values associated with sex roles with family and kinship system that influence their sex preferences. Therefore, there is higher demand for children in pre-modern societies because children were considered assets and contributed labour on the farm and within the family (Ibanga, 2001). It can be assumed that in these societies, there are prescribed sex preferences for children where sons and daughter may contribute differently to farm and domestic labour. Specifically, sons may be demanded for physical labour while the daughters are expected to help around the house and with child care (Coleman, 2007).
Socio-economic development produces lifestyle changes for both children and adults. This not only means that children no longer work and contribute to the family, but also that there are less prescribed expectations for children according to sex (Akpan, 1998). The expansion of the modern sector of the economy may also change the nature of children‟s contributions in a way that makes daughters valuable (Hilke, 2001). A pronounced preference of parents to have male children has been noted in a number of countries, although a desire for a balanced number of sons and daughters is also common (Arnold and Kuo, 1984; Williamson, 1976). Sex preference is particularly prevalent in some countries with strong Confucian traditions, which is also known as one of China’s indigenous religious believes (Cleland,Verrall and Vaessen 1983).
Across the world, studies have confirmed existence of parental child sex preference. For instance, in developed countries like United State of America (USA), United Kingdom (UK) among other, there has been a shift from specific sex preference to no gender preference (Marleau and Saucier, 2002). Whereas, across Asian the continent, Son preference is especially prevalent in countries such as Bangladesh, China, India, and Pakistan, Serbia, Belarus Abzerbaijan, Singapore, thereby leading to sex ratio disparities (Chowdhury, 1994; Zafar, 1994; Graham, Larsen and Xux, 1998; Xu , Rimpela, Jarvelin and Abreyaya, 2008). Also, Arnold and Kuo‟s (1984), reported a tendency towards daughter preference in a few Southeastern Asian countries with a Malayo-Polynesian background, including Indonesia, Philippines and in the countries of Southern Asia, Western Asia, and Northern Africa. Elsewhere in Africa, countries with son preference include Egypt, Kenya, Rwanda and Burkina Faso etc. while those with daughter preference are Mozambique, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Namibia among others (Fuse, 2010).