ABSTRACT
In this literature review we explore the various
factors that can impact how adolescent rape victims adjust psychologically
following a rape incident. Such factors include the following: how a victim
cognitively labels the incident (i.e., as rape or something else); society’s
reaction to the victim’s story, and subsequent identification of the victim as
stigmatized or not; the prevalence of rape myths that impact stigmatization;
and the presence of a support system in the form of friends who are willing to
listen receptively to the victim. These factors together affect how well a
victim is able to adjust psychologically following the rape. Given the literature’s
reliance on small samples of psychologists, scholars in their future research
should broaden the age, gender, and cultural diversity of subjects in research
on rape victims. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed as well.
CHAPTER
ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background to the Study
Rape
can be seen as an unwanted sexual intercourse that involves the use of force
and the lack of consent. It can also be described as a form of sexual
penetration, committed by perpetrator against a victim without their consent.
Rape, is a form of sexual abuse is generally defined as a forced or
non-consensual sexual act, regardless of the offender or the victims gender
identity of sexual orientation (Ezeilo, 2003). Sexuality issues have been one of
the most fundamental aspects of human existence, which is directly related to
both the physical and psychosocial well-being of an individual. Psychologists
have always believed that boys and girls achieved sexual maturity early in
adolescence and physical maturity by the end of it. One of the fundamental
human rights, according to the United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural
Organization-UNESCO (1978) is the right to protection from harmful influences,
abuse and exploitation. United Nations Children Emergency Fund-UNICEF (1989)
reiterated that its mission is to advocate for the protection of children’s
rights, especially children under the age of 18 years, to help meet their basic
needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potentials. These
rights among others include the right to protect children from rape, sexual
harassment and abuse, and right to be educated. Rape is a major public health
crisis that significantly hinders development and education of the girl-child,
particularly in sub-Saharan Africa including Nigeria where the practice is high
(National Population Commission, 2009).
Perhaps
the most vulnerable subgroups in African societies today are the girl-children
and women, largely because they are victims of practices which are embedded in
traditional institutions (patriarchy and female genital mutilation-FGM) and of
the negative consequences (overcrowding and child labour) inherent in
urbanization and industrialization (NPC, 2009). In consonance with the above
assertion by NPC (2009), Adeyinka (2010) opined that the special circumstances
in which girl-children find themselves expose them to possible risk of
physical, psychological, and sexual harassment, which in turn increases their
vulnerability to early pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections and HIV &
AIDS (Adeyinka, 2010). Nigerian educational institution is established with the
aim of giving any student who enrolls, a very sound and qualitative education,
to be able to function effectively in any environment in which he/she may find
him/herself; so as to become more productive, self-fulfilling and attain
self-actualization (Federal Government of Nigeria, 1981). Perpetration of some
social vices such as rape in the societies, homes, communities and schools
including secondary schools by any group (teachers or students inclusive)
undermines the attainment of this vital goal.
Rape
can be seen as a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse or
other forms of sexual penetration carried out against a person without that
person’s consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse
of authority, or against a person who is incapable of giving valid consent,
such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, has an intellectual disability
or is below the legal age of consent. Rape, a form of sexual abuse, is
generally defined as a forced or non-consensual sexual act, regardless of the
offender or the victim’s gender, gender identity or sexual orientation (Ezeilo,
2003). Rape is like all other illicit sexual acts, it is usually done in
secrecy so much so that in some places it is referred to as the most unreported
of all crimes (Oleribe, 2002; Ogunyemi, 2000). Rape has a worldwide prevalence
affecting mainly teenagers of all tribes and nations (Oleribe, 2002; Ogunyemi,
2000). Research in several countries like Nigeria has shown that high
percentage of young girls were coerced or forced during their first sexual
contact. Accurately estimating the prevalence of rape in sub- Saharan Africa is
difficult due to the limited amount of research done on the subject.
Psychosocial
Adjustment refers to the behavioural process by which humans and other animals
maintain equilibrium among their various needs or between their needs and the
obstacles of their environments adjustment (Searle & Ward 1990).
Psychosocial adjustment in this study refers to the ability of students to
actively go through school, interacting with other members of the school
without fear of losing self in the process so as to actualize the essence of
schooling in the face of turbulent social environmental issues, personal and
interpersonal that may tend to create barriers. It can simply be said to be a
student’s ability to be actively integrated into the school to be able to
achieve the essence of school and avoiding negative tendencies that may negate
achievement of health outcomes in school. This means that the student should be
able to relate cordially with others, be friendly and be smart in making good
friends, should be able to establish intimate relationships without losing
self, should be able to ensure adequate concentration in the school in spite
all odds, should be able to enjoy the love and encouragement of parents and
even siblings, he should also enjoy adequate teachers and administrative
consultation so as to allow adequate integration. When a student is able to
strike such balance in school he achieves adequate psychosocial adjustment that
engenders the actualization of health outcomes in all aspects of life within
and outside the school. Poor psychosocial adjustment is manifested in sexual
abuse, drunkenness, drug abuse, academic performance under achievement among
others.
The
families in general and parents in particular, have often been deemed to be the
most important support system available to the child. (Brown, Cohen, Johnson,
& Smailes, 1999) most notably, investigators have consistently found that
adolescent survivor of child sexual abuse report greater depression and general
psychological distress, more antisocial behaviours, lower self-esteem, and more
substance abuse problems. Rape related psychosocial adjustment of students is
associated with numerous deleterious consequences such as physical injury,
teenage pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections (including HIV and AIDS),
emotional trauma, poor school performance, low self-esteem, anxiety, rejection
by family and society, family disharmony, poor parenting and abusive behaviour
in later life ( Zinket al.,2009).
Burgess
and Holmstrem (2015) found that an equal number of women had an “expressed”
style where they showed feelings of fear by crying, smiling, sobbing or a
“controlled” style where the woman was calm and subdued. The primary emotion
expressed by victims is one of fear. Most of them usually say that they felt
they were going to be killed or badly injured. When an individual is subjected
to extreme stress, psychological mechanisms are evoked in an attempt to cope
with this stress. If the stress is powerful then the defence mechanisms she
uses, must be equally powerful. Thus the rape victim may experience emotional
shock where she has an exaggerated sense of unreality and disassociation.
Things seem unreal to her, and she may have difficulty attending to
environmental stimuli.
As
well, women who have reported to police, have a number of immediate tasks to
perform: the making of a statement, identifying the alleged offender either
from photos or with an identikit, repeatedly recalling details of the assault,
under-taking a medical examination and so on. Most victims try to remain in
control of themselves so that they can adequately perform these tasks. It is
our experience that women who react in a controlled way are equally as
traumatized as those who act in an expressed manner. Unfortunately the extent
of the trauma experienced by these women may go unrecognized by their
family/friends or professionals and they may receive less support and
treatment. In addition, these women may not be believed by family and others
who subscribe to the myth that rape victims to be genuine must exhibit
histrionic behaviour.
Sexual
abuse occurs when a parent or care giver engages in inappropriate sexual
behaviours with the child. This may take the form of actual sexual intercourse,
kissing, or foundling or genitals or either the abuser or the abused. According
to Uzoezie (2004) sexual abuse occurs when an adult or older person uses his or
her power over a child. The abuse may trick, bribe, threaten and if possible
force a child to take part in sexual activity. Pre-marital sex is sexual activity
practiced by people who was unmarried historically premarital sex was
considered a moral issue which was a taboo in many culture and considered a sin
by a number of religions, but since about the 1960s, it has become more widely
accepted, especially in western countries.
Socioeconomic
status, marital relationships, family structure, substance abuse among others
has been reported to be associated with the perpetration of rape (Bahal et al.,
2010). (Black, et al., 2001) revealed that parental occupational status was
moderately related to having a child who was sexually abused. In the same vein,
maternal employment brings significant stresses into the parent-child
relationship and has implications in terms of childcare arrangements, but may
also act as a protective factor through a range of social-psychological
benefits (Sidebotham & Heron, 2006). Extant studies have reported an
association between parental absence and history of rape. For instance, being
raised without one’s father, or living apart from one’s mother for a
significant part of one’s childhood, have been associated with rape (Collings,
1991). Living with one biological parent has been found to be related to sexual
abuse, consistent with other studies (Holmes & Slap, 1998).
(Berger
& Waldfogel, 2000) have linked parental substance abuse to rape. Also,
(Horwitz et al., 2001)suggested that children who had experienced rape often
grew up in families where parents used drugs or alcohol. In addition, (Walsh et
al., 2003), reported that respondents with sexual abuse increased by twofold
among those reporting parental substance abuse histories. Yen et al. (2008)
argue that an adult who is abusing substances sometimes does not make rational
choices in life. Research shows that in cases where the substance abuser is a
parent, chemical dependence is likely to lead to parenting styles that are
detrimental to children (Berger, 2005; Hampton, Senatore, & Gullota, 1998).
Strong
family relationships may act as a buffer against the perpetration of rape.
Several studies suggest that sexual abuse often takes place in non-nurturing
environmental and familial contexts (Miranda, & Marx, 2002) such as poor
parent-child relationships and family stress (Yen et al. 2008). Alexander
(1992), noted that insecure interpersonal attachment in a family, such as
between a daughter and a father who seems to reject her, may increase the risk
of rape in that family. Somatic reactions developed included physical trauma,
skeletal muscle tension, gastrointestinal irritability, genitourinary
complaints and sleep pattern changes. Emotional reactions include fear,
humiliation, anger, guilt/shame and feelings of degradation and powerlessness.
Mood swings and enhanced emotional liability may occur. Increased irritability
with, and suspiciousness of other people may also be present.
Social
adjustment is the process of finding and adopting modes of behaviour suitable
to the environment. The transition from secondary school to the
University is a challenging life transition in the developmental stages of
young adults. Many students are inadequately prepared for the psychological,
emotional and academic realities of higher education (Francis, 1990).
Conversely, parental neglect has been found to predict maladaptive and
incompetent behaviour (Dishion, 1990). Furthermore, close and caring
relationships with parents who are nurturing and supportive help the adolescent
to overcome life adversities (Barnes and Farrell, 1992; Gecas and Seff, 1990).
Adjustment plays a vital role in the development of child. Adjustment is a
dynamic and continuous process. No human being can live apart from his physical
environment. There are action and reaction changes going on between the
individual and his environment. Adjustment is a kind of interaction between the
individual and his or her environment. In other words, adjustment is a lifelong
process and can be defined as a person’s interaction with his environment
(Eitzen, 2003).
Burgess
and Holmstrom (2015) report that in the reorganization phase women develop
increased motor activity, changing their jobs, home or lifestyle as a defensive
reaction to the assault. Nightmares relating to the life threatening nature of
the assault and the powerlessness and alienation are common. The development of
phobic reactions to situations reminiscent of the rape also occurs. Some
mistrust of men with subsequent avoidance and hesitation, along with a variety
of sexual difficulties may develop. Victims are often concerned about the
effects of the rape on their close interpersonal relationships wondering how
this will affect them. The study therefore seeks to find out the impact of rape
on the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents.
1.2
Statement of the Problem
The
prevalence of rape in our environment and institutions tend to have received little
or no attention. It seems to receive cold reactions from government and school
authorities alike. Government, community and school authorities were found to
be silent about the issues pertaining to sexuality and rape. The consequences
of rape on psychosocial adjustment such as eating disorders, poor self-esteem,
anxiety disorders, general psychological distress and disorders such as
somatization, neurosis, chronic pain, sexual behaviour (i.e. having no interest
in sexual intercourse in the future), school or learning problems and behaviour
problems including substance abuse, self-destructive behaviour, and crime in
adulthood and suicide have profound potentials to thwart actualization of
students’ ambitions. Thus, jeopardizing their future lives. As a result of this
neglect from government, community, parents and school officials, many students
have quit schooling, leave their environment and many may not return to school
or their environment due to the fear of being sexually abused, raped, and
mocked by their peers or friends.
Low
parental supervision has also been shown to predict negative adjustment for
children and adolescents. Neglectful parenting, which involves low acceptance
and warmth as well as low supervision and strictness, produces the most negative
outcomes for children and adolescents. In addition, though several factors have
been implicated on rape in some educational institutions in other regions of
the country which may not be obtainable in Somolu area of Lagos State,
therefore, the question is; what is responsible for the impact of rape on the
psychosocial adjustment of students?The impact ofrape on psychosocial
adjustment of students is limited. This research seeks to fill the vacuum by
examining the student view on how rape has impact on their psychosocial
adjustment with special reference to social adjustment and psychological
adjustment. It is hoped that a lot more persons raped will avail themselves of
preventive service even if they do not want to report to the police. This will
hopefully assist in narrowing the gaps in the reported cases of rape in Nigeria
and worldwide. Thus, this study sets out to examine the impact of rape on the
psychosocial adjustment of adolescents in Somolu Local Government Area of Lagos
State.
1.3
Objectives of the Study
The
main purpose of this study is to examine the impact of rape on the psychosocial
adjustment of adolescents in Somolu Local Government Area of Lagos State. This
general aim is expressed in the following specific objectives which are to:
i.
to identify the impact of rape on social adjustment of adolescents.
ii.
to ascertain impact of rape on psychological adjustment of adolescents.
iii.
to determine the gender impact of rape on psychosocial adjustment of
adolescents.
1.4
Research Questions
The
research following questions will be answered in this study:
i.
what is the extent does rape have impact on social adjustment of adolescents?
ii.
what is the extent of rape impact on psychological adjustment of adolescents?
Iii
Is there gender impact of rape on psychosocial adjustment of adolescents?
1.5
Significance of the Study
The
study has the following potential benefits. In the first place, the study would
be of great benefit to students, parents, counsellors, educators, educational
policy makers. It would provide empirical evidence to schools, parents, and
students about rape and how it affects the psychosocial adjustment of students
and thereby causing depression, psychological distress, aggression, lower
self-esteem, substance abuse problems, school dropout, unwanted pregnancy etc.
Local
government departments concerned with education would find the study worthwhile
because it would help them carry out seminars and meetings on rape, on how it
is a severely traumatic experience that disproportionally affects women and
girls.
Specifically,
this study would show vividly to the counsellor of the school the need to
consider the student’s home environment first, other factors causing rape and
provide help where necessary. Thus, it would help the counsellors to formulate
policies which will take care of the role of the home and the school in the
overall character of the students’ in the school and in general within the
society.
In
addition, this study would establish baseline patterns of distribution of adolescent
rape and will assist physicians to have a high index of suspicion when handling
children with these problems. The research would also be a resource of value to
other researchers carrying out research on the topic or similar subject matter.
1.6
Scope of the Study
The
study covers impact of rape on the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents in
Somolu Local Government Area of Lagos State. The study will cover rape, social
adjustment, psychological adjustment, gender impact and psychosocial adjustment
of secondary school students.
1.7
Operational Definition of Terms
Relative
to this study, definitions to the following terms are provided in order to
clarify each in the context of the topic:
Students: this
is a group of people studying in an institution.
Impact –
Impact is the striking of one thing against another.
Rape: Rape,
a form of sexual abuse, is generally defined as a forced or non-consensual
sexual act, regardless of the offender or the victim’s gender, gender identity
or sexual orientation.
Sexual
Abuse: A child sexual abuse is the use of
a child for sexual gratification by an adult or significantly older
child/adolescent. Thus; any act which exposes a child to, or involves a child
in, sexual processes beyond his or her understanding or contrary to accepted
community standards. Sexually abusive behaviours can include the fondling of
genitals, masturbation, oral sex, vaginal or anal penetration by a penis,
finger or any other object, fondling of breasts, voyeurism and exhibitionism,
and exposing the child to or involving the child in pornography.
Sexual
Violence: Refers to any harmful act that is
perpetrated against one person’s will and that is based on socially ascribed
(gender) differences between males and females.
Sexual
Assault: Sexual assault occur when a person
unlawfully and purposefully uses an object or any part of their body (except
his or her private parts) or any part of an animal to penetrate the private
parts of another person without the person’s permission.
Adjustment: This
is the psychological process through which a student copes with the challenges
that his/her peers face daily. It involves coping with new values and
standards.
Psychosocial: Means
it relates to one’s psychological development in, and interaction with, a
social environment.
Psychosocial
Adjustment: Is an adaptive task of managing
upsetting feelings and frustrations aroused by the illness, and preserving an
emotional balance.
Psychological
Adjustment: Refers to the
behavioural process of balancing conflicting needs, or needs challenged by
obstacles in the environment.
Social
Adjustment: This is the ability of
an individual to adapt to varied conditions.