ABSTRACT
Could it be possible that there are people who have no sense of morality or of a ‘lower grade of moral consciousnesses?’ And to be specific, could there be anything like morality in Igbo traditionalism? If there is, in which sense could it be understood? In other words, what is the foundation of morality in traditional ethics? These questions indeed gave rise to this research and the Igbo indeed have a morality which is centred on their concept of truth and justice – “Ofo”. We have symbolic and living instruments of this justice and truth.
At times, this morality is moulded up, unsubstantiated, unsystematic, and uncritically rooted in customs and traditions (omenala). This work is geared towards unmasking the moral values inherent in the customs and traditions as raw materials (first-order-activity) for a purely and systematic philosophizing (second-order-activity) – ethics via Ofoism.
With the concept of “Ofoism”, we shall see the Igbo communal expression of justice, its dimensions and perspectives. As freedom and responsibility are pre-suposition of ethics in general, we shall look into moral responsibility in Igbo communal justice. Thereafter comes our evaluation of the whole body of work, and immediate conclusion.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Every man tries with utmost care and effort to maintain peace and order, preserve mutual respect of individual’s goods and rights in every society (Community). This is achieved through the communal promulgation of certain rules and regulations; and inculcation of certain ethical norms and trends. The essence of this venture is to instill discipline, promote love and order and to uphold every goodness of man (mma-ndu) in all its ramifications. These ethical norms and principles are the fruits of man’s reflective activity concerning what is conducive for human welfare.
Before the movement for the colonization of Africa, there existed some form of social organization with its own form of “civilization”, norms, behavioral patterns, and customary laws that serve as guidance to the members of every society. On this therefore, Chijoke highlights:
This was mostly evident in the so-called primitive communal system where people lived and cherished one another and produced mostly to meet their immediate needs. They were primarily engaged in subsistence farming and exchanged goods and services through barter training. There were no traces of crimes as we know today as the community was closely knit. In fact, there was no need for a “police force” as everyone was a “police” of a sort. People then obeyed and conformed to societal norms and behaviors, not necessarily for fear of sanctions and punishments, but as natural way of life.1
The foundation of Ethics in Traditional African Religion is solidly laid and rooted in the people’s indigenous religion, beliefs and practices. Bolaji Idowu (1977:146) writes without reservation, “the Yoruba morality is certainly the fruit of religion. They do not attempt to separate the two and it is impossible for them to do so without disastrous consequences.” Similarly, Aylwad Shorters 1973:62) states thus:
In African Traditional societies, morality is seen to be an intimate relationship with the ontological order of the universe. Any infraction of this order is a contradiction in life itself and brings about a physical disorder which reveals the fault.
Traditional African Religion believes in the existence of gods i.e the deities and divinities who are believed to be the ministers of God and are subordinate to him. God, (Chukwu) is conceived like a monarch, an absolute monarch surrounded by his chiefs (gods) who are at his service. It is believed that they are the agents that execute his wishes. Everyone strives to establish cordial relationship of man to man, man to the deities and the universe as a whole.
The deities and the divinities have been apportioned different assignments and also empowered by the Supreme Being (Chukwu) to attend to human problems and needs. They also exercise influence on the morality of the people. They reward the virtuous and inflict pains and sufferings on those who step on the law of the cosmic order. “Igbo ethics”, as we shall examine, will therefore consider the Igbo traditional background, the nature of Igbo Ethics itself, and its consistency with other dimensions of Igbo life. We shall make a detailed account of the principles governing the ethical life of the Igbo. It will also examine certain topical ethical issues such as the nature of Igbo moral responsibility, justice, Igbo ethical judgment, concept of evil. Finally, the work will X-ray the significance of: Igbo ontology and cosmology. All this will be considered in the light of the prevailing contemporary discussions on whether the end justifies the means (African –Igbo dimension).
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Debasement of human morality in various facets of human lives and increasing rate of crime and corruption, evils and abomination are commonly reported in the contemporary African religio-socio-political lives. This raises a strong question with regard to the traditional morality and ethics. And to be specific, could there be anything like morality in Igbo traditionalism? If there is, in which sense could it be understood? In other words, what is the foundation of morality in traditional ethics?
Many Igbo values and heritages have been either utterly denied, or merely distorted. Some of these values cut across the essential domains of life; areas, one would expect to belong to man as such, irrespective of his time and culture.2 The spheres of life that suffer most from this anomaly, or misrepresentation include; law, religion, philosophy, science, and ethics.
In the case of ethics, the problem seems to be more glaring and serious. Not only are the Igbo and Africa in general denied having a reflective thought capable,3 of evolving and generating an ethics, but where it is acknowledged at all, the fruit of such reflective activities is often misconceived as merely, “religious” in outlook. Some refer to it as “religious-morality”, “religious ethics”, “traditional ethos”, or “mores”. Others, in the same camp call it “cultural ethics”, “customary law”, or simply “primitive behavioral pattern.” How true are these assertions? The Igbo in their world-view believe so much in the existence of deities, divinities and so on. Looking into the existence or the reality of these spiritual beings and their subsequent symbols of operations, how do one account for morality and what sort of influence do they exercise on man as a moral free agent? Parallel to this notion is a stereotypical conception among the traditional Igbo, (ossified by many Anthropological writings) that Igbo morality is a product of the earth goddess (‘Ala’). Or, else, that the earth goddess (Ala) is the “guardian” of Igbo morality.4 When did the earth goddess ever formulate the moral laws as to become its guardian, one would ask? Again, the question of ‘when’ calls to mind the question of ‘where’ and ‘how’ such laws were handed down to man and through ‘whom’ precisely? Is the earth goddess (Ala) the guardian of morality in other Igbo communities outside her direct domain and influence?5 In other words, if Igbo – African ontology, Placid Tempel and some anthropologists claim that everything has vital force, then, how do we account for human freedom and autonomy in the interactions and activities of these forces? Owing to the fact that Igbo culture is religiously colored and oriented, could one articulate Igbo moral philosophy (Ethics) as a separate discipline different from Igbo Traditional Religion? All these questions and more stand as the statement of the problem. They will at the same time provide a veritable focus to the overall work as we shall see from the on set
1.3SCOPE OF THE STUDY
Anthropologically, the Igbo have five cultural area groups, namely: the Northern Igbo, the Southern Igbo, the Western Igbo, the Eastern and the North-Eastern Igbo. All these groups have the common characteristics that portray them as a unified people, the “Igbo”, in the midst of few accidental differences as we shall see. Thus, the scope of this work embraces the Igbo as a whole, irrespective of the above divisions.
This is also true of the mission of “Igbo ethics” which, as the (moral) philosophy of the Igbo aims not really at the “particular”, but at the abstract “universal” domains. Igbo ethics here, aims not at the specific and actual Igbo behavioral pattern but at the “oughts’ or the “ideal” patterns. As an abstraction, it cuts across the Igbo cultural classifications and groupings.
1.4PURPOSE OF STUDY
The most cherished common heritage, which characterizes an African in his being, and mode of life as a whole is communalism, the co-existence and sharing of life. Apart from giving him a distinctive mark of identity, as against the west, communalism has remained with him over the years, being a veritable ‘insurance’ in justice for his life, and properties. He has been shaped and re-shaped in his visions by this singular factor, constituting a bed rock of his out-reaching solidarity with a wider society and humanity as a whole. It is because of its central concern on ‘man’ not as a discrete entity but as a being-in-relation-to-others, it is often characterized as “African humanism”, or “African brotherhood” in the words of Nyerere.
So, the purpose of this work is first and foremost to establish the fact that the Igbo, like other Africans have sense of morality, and possess a rational ethics. The core of this ethics is justice and truth as reflected in the communal life of the people and their activities in general. There is need to undertake this research for the general development of African Philosophy and authentic African life. The work aims at supplying some of the answers as it concerns the African (Igbo) moral philosophy. Above all, the purpose of this work is to create an awareness of the essential comparative characterizations of African ethics vis-à-vis western paratypes.
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Earlier before now, most Europeans and others were thus poorly equipped for either the intellectual understanding of African culture, Igbo not excluded; or for any degree of empathy with the way of life it represented. African, (African culture, religions, history, philosophy, morality and artifacts) were denigrated, and distorted. These were classified according to the grid of western thought and imagination which was of a negative category of the same.
The significance of this work, just like others of its kind is its reactionary in form. It is particularly to proof through rational analysis that Africa and especially Igbo is not exactly as represented by our European counter-pacts. In this work, therefore, we work out the Igbo traditional ethics which is not purely dependent on any religion; in stead, founded on Igbo man’s rational and reflective activity.
1.6 METHODOLOGY OF WORK
The first method is a critical analysis of the Igbo ontology and cosmology. A critical review will be made on Igbo anthropological, philosophical and religious literatures, relevant theses, and dissertation on the Igbo. Here the work will not be expository as such, but an abstraction of the ethical tendencies of the Igbo, of which justice (Ofo) is at the centre. It is an abstraction based on what the Igbo aspires to achieve in their ethical actions, especially in their traditional beliefs.
Oral interviews are also employed to supplement the written materials. The approach is largely critical, analytical and evaluative aimed at showing the strong sense of Igbo ethics.
Chapter one, is more of general introduction to the work; it provided the background of the work.
Chapter Two is geared towards the review of related texts in the context of the work.
In Chapter three, we try to explore the meaning of ethics in general as a presupposition of Igbo concept of justice; and its relationship with morality in general, law and religion.
Also, in Chapter four, we try to give the notion of Igbo communal ethics; their expression of justice and moral responsibility.
Finally, chapter five is purely a critical evaluation of the work in general and conclusion thereafter.
1.7.0 INTRODUCTORY DISCOURSE AND EXPLICATION OF TERMS.
One might ask: who are the Igbo? We start our write –up by clarifying some of those key concepts of our interest. The Igbo is a tribe in the African continent of the world. Geographically, from parts of Delta, Rivers, Cross River, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Kogi, to the whole of Imo, Anambra, Abia, Enugu and Ebonyi states are Igbo indigenous settlements. Such belief in the deities and their activities are easily noted in Igbo traditional societies. Hence, we shall try to explore rationally this belief and practice in Igbo–African, especially how these deities influence man in Igbo world in terms of morality.
One cannot overlabor the obvious, that the key words of our interest, namely Earth-deity, morality and world –view appear to be less philosophical and as such certain authorities are some books and authors of African Traditional religion. Here lies the great difficulty in having philosophically authorities to refer. However, philosophy ought to be a personal, rational, critical and thorough reflection on reality. Thus, it behooves on us to use the Igbo culture, religious beliefs, etc as the ‘ philosophems’ or raw material for our philosophical study.
According to J.S Mbiti, “To speak is to speak from somewhere”. An anthropologist said that every man is a product of his culture. Hence, for us to appreciate the concept of deities in Igbo world – view in a relational analysis, we must of course focus on Igbo culture. And according to Ogugua,P.
Culture is exclusively a human phenomenon quite complex; uniting and dividing human groups, as different peoples perceive life and reality differently. Culture is the totalization of all, as peoples’ beliefs, mores, arts, customs, etc, learned, shared and equally transmitted from generation to generation, in short; it embodies the manipulation of forces in their environment for better.6
Beyond people’s culture is their world-view or in a more precise manner, alongside culture is the world view of a people. Let us briefly look into the meaning of world-view.
1.7.1 THE CONCEPT OF WORLD – VIEW
Various scholars have various definitions of world-view. An author explains it to mean how the world is conceived, contemplated, perceived… by people who live in it… especially within the ambit of human environment.7 Trying to compare world-view along side with Cultural anthropology, the same author writes:
That a world-view is a body of beliefs about the universe which are common among members of any society and existentially demonstrated in their value systems such as their philosophy of life, social conduct and morality, folklores, myths, rites and rituals, norms, rules, ideas, cognitive mappings, theologies, etc 8
For Nwala:
It refers to the complex of beliefs, habits, laws, customs, and tradition of a people. It includes the overall picture they have about reality, the universe, life
and existence; their attitude to life and to things in general, what they do and think of what life is, what things are worth striving to attain; what is man’s place in the scheme of things; whether or not life has a meaning and purpose.9
We understand world -view from Okafor F. as “the sum total of all the assumptions entertained by a people. It is a people’s mental map of the universe. It is the concepts of the world: physical and metaphysical held by a people…They are the basic notions underlying their cultural, religious and social activities.” Also Iroegbu (2003:7) stated:
There is a background to every experience. Nothing springs from nowhere. All experiences, including religious ones, have a foundation and springboard, which we may call the mother that gives birth to the experiences. Equally experience itself is also a father of basic tenets, including the metaphysical convictions and religious credo of persons and peoples…That the human being is fundamentally a communal being is a metaphysical conviction that arises from the experience that outside some form of community, no one has ever survived.”
In a way, world-view is usually unique to a person or a group of people. Thus, a people can use their world-view to explain their attitudinal orientations towards certain issues peculiar to them alone. So far in our analysis of worldview, Onuoha’s articulations would serve us thus.10
– All world-views are mutually hostile and intolerant. This can explain why we have various types of religious conflicts in Nigeria. This is because the various religious traditions are built on their own basic cosmologies.
– All world-views are based on faith. They are based on assumptions that cannot be proved scientifically. On these assumptions, they dogmatise. The creed calls for blind faith and emotional response. One can understand the power of emotions in the lives of man. When strong emotions are aroused, man finds it hard to listen to the voice of reason. Thus, he can go at any length to defend his religion even physically in a war with another person who does not share in his own views.
– All world-views breed a strong sense of self assurance. This is evident among new converts to a particular faith. It is common to hear a newly converted born-again saying that he has now seen the light. All along, he has been in darkness. He is so sure of his new found vocation.
– All world-views are missionary, if not imperialist, in spirit. They proselytize. This is very evident in the way traditions are handed over from generation to generation. Also, world-views thrive on propaganda, tracts, and stickers, brainwashing, schools, colonialism and mere biological procreation.
– All world-views provide their devotees with techniques they can manipulate human society, the spiritual world and the physical world. This, they do by determining certain “ends” that must be attained, prescribing the “means” by which such ends are to be reached within the context of the particular world-view. For instance, the Christian world-view can provide such techniques as sacraments, rites and ceremonies, while Igbo world-view, sacrifices can also be prescribed by priests and diviners to placate angry spiritual beings.
– All world-views have their members on a routine basis, constructing and reconstructing the world after their own image. Thus, man is constantly being manipulated to fit into newly adapted views.
The summary of it all is that a world-view gives ultimate meaning to life and to a people’s understanding of their role and prospects in life. Thus it can be said that it gives a sense of direction and purpose to our lives, and enable people to act purposefully in their existential lives. According to Onuoha, it is our sub-conscious guide through life.11
No wonder Kraft for instance would call it the “central control box” and holds that it governs the application of the people’s conceptualizations of their relationship and environment. Let us briefly look into the Igbo African world view.
1.7.2 IGBO – AFRICAN WORLD VIEW
It is a well established fact of history that there are as many world views as there are cultures, groups of people. There is the Western world-view; African world view, the Asiatic world-view, etc. Consequently, world-view is of its very nature something natural, coeval, and peculiar to man in all cultures.
African world-view is the one that is traditional and peculiar to the pre-modern Africans. “It comprises their beliefs, attitudes, origin, their nature, structures of organization and interaction in the world handed down as the sum total of the assumptions entertained from one generation to another.” 12
Beliefs about the physical, the spiritual worlds and their eschatological beliefs are regarded as world-views. It can in a way be describes as the philosophies of the Igbo African people. The collective, uncritical and unsubstantiated outlooks in life of our fore-fathers which are co-eval with them as the IgboAfricans – in – the – African – universe passed from one generation to the other are all the products of their world-views.
The universe according to Igbo Cosmology is structured in two main interrelated parts
i. Eluigwe – sky.
ii. Elu – uwa (Ala) – the earth Thus, there are two orders of existence:
i. Ala Mmuo – the spirit world or supernatural order. ii. Ala mmadu – the human world or the visible order.
Elu-igwe (the sky): This is the celestial zone where celestial bodies such as the stars (kpakpando), moon(Onwa), Sun(Anyanwu), Cloud (Urukpu), rain (mmiri), are located. The sky is the home of certain deities such as Amadioha
( the thunder god), the Sun god and a host of other deities, and spirits. The Supreme Deity, “Chukwu” is also believed to live there, likewise the ancestral
spirits.13
Elu Uwa (Earth): This is the earth on which we live. It is the home of man, animals, birds, plants and a host of other created beings. A host of deities live on the earth. They are earth deity (“ala”) river deities, mountain deities and those associated with graves, valleys, farm,e.t.c
Ala muo (the spirit world). This is the place inhabited by spirits, deities, ancestral spirits and the spirits dwell in woods, bush, forests, seas, rivers, and mountains and around the villages and compounds, including the shrines, oracles and even the grave yards.14
Also according to the Igbo myth of creation, the creative activity is ascribed to Chukwu or Chineke i.e God that creates. Accordingly, Chukwu is said to be the creator of things visible and things invisible. This would help us, says Madu, to gain insight as to the structure of the universe15 and this is that the universe is broadly divided into two realms, the visible and the invisible world. These two broad divisions can be extended into three. In fact, it is the invisible world that can be sub-divided into two – the world of God and the gods situated somewhere above the firmament and the underworld, somewhere beneath earth surface. It is said to be the home of the ancestors.
So many Igbo scholars have used the three-tier16 structural nomenclature of Elu-igwe,Ala mmadu, and Ala Mmuo, while others have settled for the twotier17structural arrangement of uwa ana ahu anya (visible world) and Uwa-ana anaghi ahu anya ( the invisible world). Just like so many African scholars, Madu states that the visible and the invisible worlds are not mutually excusive, but overlap.18 The invisible world made up of Eluigwe and Ala Mmuo as well as Ala Mmadu are inhabited by beings. Ejizu notes that Eluigwe (the sky above) is the abode of the Supreme Being( Chukwu or Chineke) and such major divinities like Amadioha (god of thunder) and Anyanwu (god of light). The Earth is regarded as the home of the Earth-goddess (Ala), minor deities, nature deities and man while the ancestors and myriads of spirit-forces ( good and evil) inhabit the under-world.19
The Igbo people believe so much in deities, gods, divinities and so on. Some has always raised such questions as pertaining their origin, nature and relationship with the humans, taking for granted without any doubt that they really exist. The deities (Mmuo) Onuoha refers to as gods, Ambassadors or Deans.20
On Igbo world-view still, Nwala notes: “Omenala includes major beliefs about the place of the universe and its nature, the place of the spirits, deities, man and other beings in the universe, the nature or character of taboos, regulations, prescriptions and prohibitions as to what is proper in such a universe ….” 21
The influence of Christianity and western tradition has really altered the understanding of Igbo- African culture and world-views. This is what some scholars have termed ‘syncretism’ whereby there are mix up of various and different religions, philosophies or ideas. Consequently, the idea of gods or deities in Igbo world view came to be regarded as a kind of idolatry especially from the beliefs of Christianity and the commandment of God whereby no one should have any other god except him, the God. The question has been whether the deities are among or are the gods being referred to in the context? According to Mbamara. C.I,
It is evident that that the deities are not to be included among the fallen Angels who were cast out of heaven at the time of Satan’s rebellion, it nevertheless seems probably that their fall is in some way associated with this rebellion.22
Some Igbo – Africans believe that some of these gods or deities were originally angels but due to their promotion given to them, they became gods or deities. Their specific assignment originally was to guide God’s creation such as rivers, streams, bushes, forests, trees, hills, valley etc, with time they assumed the ownership of what they were instructed to guide. Some of the aforementioned latter begin to reflect these gods or deities.
1.7.3 THE UNITY OF THE IGBO WORLD VIEW
The multiplicity of spiritual beings in the traditional African world-view does not in any way at all reflect the dichotomy found in western metaphysics.